annotation
type: ObjectProperty
comment: The relation between linguistic data and some other expression which provides some kind linguistic information other than what is explicitly given by the data.

freeTranslation
type: ObjectProperty
comment: The relation between an orthographic expression in one language and some orthographic expression in another such that both expressions have exactly the same meaning. The words in the translation may not correspond to the those in the source expression.
sub property of: translates

hasSense
type: ObjectProperty
comment: This relation associates some LinguisticUnit with a SemanticUnit.
domain: LinguisticUnit

literalTranslation
type: ObjectProperty
comment: The relation between an orthographic expression in one language and some orthographic expression in another such that the translation is done on a word by word basis without regard for the meaning of idioms [revise this definition].
sub property of: translates

names
type: ObjectProperty
comment: This relation associates some written expression with any entity in the ontology. It labels or expresses that entity.
range: Entity
domain: WrittenExpression

realization
type: ObjectProperty
comment: This relation associates some LinguisticUnit with its corresponding OrthographicExpression.
domain: LinguisticUnit
range: WrittenExpression

translates
type: ObjectProperty
comment: The relation between an orthographic expression in one language and some orthographic expression in another such that both expressions have the same or roughly the same meaning.
sub property of: annotation

hasForm
type: DatatypeProperty
comment: This relation is included as a work-around, because string literals cannot be used as classes themselves, i.e., as subjects in an rdf graph. It expresses the substantial part of all written expressions.
domain: WrittenExpression
range: string

AbsoluteFutureTense
type: Class
subclass of: AbsoluteTense
comment: AbsoluteFutureTense locates the event in question subsequent to the present moment; it is a prediction of some state of affairs (Comrie 1985: 43-44).

AbsolutePastTense
type: Class
subclass of: AbsoluteTense
comment: AbsolutePastTense locates the situation in question prior to the present moment (Comrie 1985: 41).

AbsoluteRelativeTense
type: Class
subclass of: TenseValue
comment: AbsoluteRelativeTense locates the event in question in relation to a temporal reference point that, in turn, is referred to in relation to the moment of utterance; the reference point and the moment of utterance are not identical (Comrie 1985: 64-65).

AbsoluteTense
type: Class
subclass of: TenseValue
comment: AbsoluteTenseValue is the set of all values associated with the grammatical encoding of an event's location in time where the moment of utterance is the deictic center (Comrie 1985: 36).

Abstract
type: Class
subclass of: Entity
comment: Properties or qualities as distinguished from any particular embodiment of the properties/qualities in a physical medium. Instances of Abstract can be said to exist in the same sense as mathematical objects such as sets and relations, but they cannot exist at a particular place and time without some physical encoding or embodiment.

Adposition
type: Class
subclass of: PartOfSpeechValue
comment: An adposition is a part of speech whose members are of a closed set and occur before or after a complement composed of a noun phrase, noun, pronoun, or clause that functions as a noun phrase and forms a single structure with the complement to express its grammatical and semantic relation to another unit within a clause (Comrie 1989:91; Crystal 1997: 305; Mish et al. 1990:929; Payne 1997:86).

Animate
type: Class
subclass of: GenderValue
comment: One of the two grammatical genders, or classes of nouns, the other being inanimate. Membership in the animate grammatical class is largely based on meanings, in that living things, including humans, animals, spirits, trees, and most plants are included in the animate class of nouns (Valentine 2001: 114).

article
type: Class
subclass of: Determiner
comment: An article is a member of a small class of determiners that identify a noun's definite or indefinite reference, and new or given status (Crystal 1997:26; Mish et al. 1990:105).

AspectValue
type: Class
subclass of: MorphoSyntacticFeatureValue
comment: AspectValue is the class of values that may be associated with the feature instance 'aspect'. AspectValue is the class of all apsect types found in language. Aspect is the grammatical encoding of various characteristics of the event referred to in an utterance. Aspect does not form a semantically contiguous class (Comrie 1976; Bybee 1985; Sasse 2002).

Attribute
type: Class
subclass of: Abstract
comment: Qualities which we cannot or choose not to reify into subclasses of Object.

BoundRoot
type: Class
subclass of: SublexicalUnit
comment: BoundRoot is the class of bound units whose members are common to a set of derived or inflected units, if any, when all bound units are removed. They are not further analyzable into meaningful elements, being morphologically simple. Also, they designate the principle portion of meaning of the unit to which it belongs (Crystal 1985:268; Hartmann and Stork 1972:199; Pei and Gaynor 1954:187-188; Mish et al. 1990:1023; Matthews 1991:64).

BoundStem
type: Class
subclass of: SublexicalUnit
comment: BoundStem is the class of units whose members are decomposable into a root or roots and a derivational unit, and are only expressed by bound forms in the language (Crystal 1985:287; Mish et al. 1990:1154).

CaseValue
type: Class
subclass of: MorphoSyntacticFeatureValue
comment: CaseValue is the class of values that may be associated with the feature instance 'case'. CaseValue is the class of all case types found in language. Case is a system of marking dependent nouns for the type of relationship (syntactic or semantic) they bear to some other element in the sentence, such as a verb, noun, pronoun, or adposition(Pei and Gaynor 1954: 35; Crystal 1980: 5354; Anderson 1985: 179180; Andrews 1985: 7172; Mish et al. 1990: 211; Kuno 1973: 45; Blake 2001).

Character
type: Class
subclass of: WrittenExpression
comment: Character is the minimal orthographic unit.

Class
subclass of: SetOrClass
comment: Classes differ from Sets in two important respects. First, Classes are not assumed to be extensional. That is, distinct Classes might well have exactly the same instances. Second, Classes typically have an associated `condition' that determines the instances of the Class. So, for example, the condition `human' determines the Class of Humans. Note that some Classes might satisfy their own condition (e.g., the Class of Abstract things is Abstract) and hence be instances of themselves.

Clause
type: Class
subclass of: PhraseUnit
comment: A clause is a minimal unit including a predicate, all arguments of the predicate, and all modifiers of the predicate and the arguments.

Clitic
type: Class
subclass of: SublexicalUnit
comment: Clitic is the class of units which members exhibit syntactic characteristics of a lexical unit, but show evidence of being morphologically bound to another lexical unit, the host, by being unstressed or subject to word-level phonological rules (Crystal 1980:64; Hartmann and Stork 1972:38; Anderson 1985:158; Klavans 1982: xi-xiv, 74-76,83,93-95,100-101; Zwicky 1977:5).

ClosedFeature
type: Class
subclass of: Feature
comment: ClosedFeature is the set of features with a simple value, e.g., the feature 'tense' which may have the feature 'past' (Maxwell, Simons and Hayashi 2001).

ClosedMorphoSyntacticFeature
type: Class
subclass of: ClosedFeature
comment: ClosedMorphoSyntacticFeature identifies the particular grammatical category to which a simple FeatureValue is assigned. It is the first member of a FeatureSpecification. Any grammatical category, such as 'tense' or 'aspect', can be represented as a ClosedMorphoSyntacticFeature in a given language. A set of Features forms an integral part of a language's FeatureSystem. (Maxwell, Simons and Hayashi 2001).

ClosedSpecification
type: Class
subclass of: FeatureSpecification
comment: ClosedSpecification is a kind of FeatureSpecification whose first element must be an instance of Feature and whose second element must be an instance of FeatureValue (Maxwell, Simons, and Hayashi 2001).

ComplexFeature
type: Class
subclass of: Feature
comment: ComplexFeature is the set of features which have complex values, that is, which have a FeatureSpecification as its value (Maxwell, Simons and Hayashi 2001).

ComplexLexicalUnit
type: Class
subclass of: LexicalUnit
comment: ComplexLexicalUnit

ComplexMorphoSyntacticFeature
type: Class
subclass of: ClosedFeature
comment: ComplexMorphoSyntacticFeature identifies the particular grammatical category to which a FeatureSpecification is assigned. This class is used to assign multiple values to a single feature, e.g., 'agreement' (Maxwell, Simons and Hayashi 2001).

ComplexOrthWord
type: Class
subclass of: OrthWord
comment: A ComplexOrthWord is made up of two or more OrthographicExpressions.

ComplexSpecification
type: Class
subclass of: FeatureSpecification
comment: ComplexSpecification is a kind of FeatureSpecification whose first element must be an instance of Feature and whose second element must be an instance of FeatureStructure. This class gives a feature system its recursive properites (Maxwell, Simons, and Hayashi 2001).

Compound
type: Class
subclass of: ComplexLexicalUnit
comment: Compound

Connective
type: Class
subclass of: PartOfSpeechValue
comment: Also known as a conjunction, a Connective is a class of parts of speech whose members syntactically link words or larger constituents, and expresses a semantic relationship between them. A conjunction is positionally fixed relative to one or more of the elements related by it, thus distinguishing it from constituents such as English conjunctive adverbs (Crystal 1997:81; Mish et al. 1990:277-278).

ContentBearingObject
type: Class
subclass of: SelfConnectedObject
comment: Any SelfConnectedObject that expresses information.

CoordinatingConnective
type: Class
subclass of: Connective
comment: A coordinating connective is a connective that links constituents without syntactically subordinating one to the other (Crystal 1997:93; Mish et al. 1990:288).

DerivationalUnit
type: Class
subclass of: SublexicalUnit
comment: DerivationalUnit is the class of sublexical units whose members function to derive a new lexical unit from an existing one, by systematically changing the meaning and possibly altering the partOfSpeech feature of the Root or Stem it attaches to (Hartmann and Stork 1972:62; Crystal 1985:89; Mish et al. 1990:342; Bybee 1985:81-82, 99).

Determiner
type: Class
subclass of: PartOfSpeechValue
comment: A Determiner is a partOfSpeech whose members belong to a class of noun modifiers and express the reference, including quantity, of a noun (Crystal 1997:112; Mish et al. 1990:346).

DirectionalCase
type: Class
subclass of: SpatialCase
comment: Represents a dynamic spatial relation (involving movement) between two Objects

DynamicityAspect
type: Class
subclass of: AspectValue
comment: DynamicityAspect refers to the degree to which an event is expressed as an on going process, i.e., as progressive or not (Bybee, Perkins and Pagliuca 1994: 127-139).

Enclitic
type: Class
subclass of: Clitic
comment: An enclitic is a clitic that is phonologically joined at the end of a preceding lexical unit to form a single phonological unit (Crystal 1980:64; Pei and Gaynor 1954:65; Mish et al. 1990:409).

Entity
type: Class
subclass of: Thing
comment: The universal class of individuals. This is the root node of the ontology.

EvaluativeValue
type: Class
subclass of: MorphoSyntacticFeatureValue
comment: EvaluativeValue is the class of values that may be associated with the feature instance 'evaluative'. EvaluativeValue is the class of all evaluative types found in language.

Feature
type: Class
subclass of: InternalAttribute
comment: Feature, also called a quality or a feature name, is the class of attributes that may be associated with entities. Features have as their values instances of FeatureValue. That is, specific features have specific values associated with them, e.g., the feature 'tense' has 'past', 'present', ..., 'future' as values. In the broader domain, the class of Feature can be thought of as the set of qualities associated with some object in general, e.g., color, size, shape, etc. (Shieber 1986: 12; Gärdenfors 2000; Masolo et al. 2002).

FeatureConstraint
type: Class
subclass of: List
comment: FeatureConstraint is the class of all lists, duples, which contain as the first member a partOfSpeechValue and, as its second, a set of Features. This essentially gives part of speech a priviledged status in a FeatureSystem. That is, the part of speech determines which Features may be associated with a particular linguistic unit.

FeatureSpecification
type: Class
subclass of: List
comment: A FeatureSpecification is an ordered list, a duple, whose first element must be an instance of Feature and whose second element is either an instance of FeatureValue or FeatureStructure (Maxwell, Simons, and Hayashi 2001).

FeatureStructure
type: Class
subclass of: Set
comment: A FeatureStructure is a set of zero or more FeatureSpecifications. A FeatureStructure is a kind of information structure, a container or data structure, expressly to group qualities or features of some object. In a grammatical feature system, a FeatureStructure holds the grammatical information associated with some linguistic unit. In a typed feature system, a FeatureStructure has an associated type, usually a PartOfSpeechValue. (Shieber 1986; Maxwell, Simons, and Hayashi 2001).

FeatureSystem
type: Class
subclass of: List
comment: FeatureSystem is the class of grammatical systems which uses features and values to represent grammatical information. It can be assumed that only one feature system exists per language data project. A FeatureSystem consists of a set of FeatureValueAssociations, which is a set of features and their allowable values, and a set of FeatureConstraints (Maxwell, Simons, and Hayashi 2001).

FeatureValue
type: Class
subclass of: Abstract
comment: FeatureValue is the class of values that may be associated with instances of Feature. That is, specific features have specific feature values associated with them, e.g., the feature 'tense' has 'past', 'present', ..., 'future' as values. In the broader domain, the class of FeatureValue can be thought of as the set of qualia associated with some feature in general, a point in cognitive space. E.g., red is a quale in color space (Shieber 1986: 12; Maxwell, Simons, and Hayashi 2001; Gärdenfors 2000; Masolo et al. 2002).

FeatureValueAssociation
type: Class
subclass of: List
comment: FeatureValueAssociation is the class of all lists, duples, which contain as the first member a Feature and as the second a set of FeatureValues.

FreeRoot
type: Class
subclass of: LexicalUnit
comment: FreeRoot is the class of free units whose members are common to a set of derived or inflected units, if any, when all bound units are removed. They are not further analyzable into meaningful elements, being morphologically simple. Also, they designate the principle portion of meaning of the unit to which it belongs (Crystal 1985:268; Hartmann and Stork 1972:199; Pei and Gaynor 1954:187-188; Mish et al. 1990:1023; Matthews 1991:64).

FreeStem
type: Class
subclass of: ComplexLexicalUnit
comment: FreeStem is the class of units whose members are decomposable into a root or roots and a derivational unit. They are expressed by the free forms of the language (Crystal 1985:287; Mish et al. 1990:1154).

GenderValue
type: Class
subclass of: MorphoSyntacticFeatureValue
comment: GenderValue is the class of values that may be associated with the feature instance 'gender'. GenderValue is the class of all gender types found in language.

GrammaticalCase
type: Class
subclass of: CaseValue
comment: Subsumes the Cases that are assigned by the verb. These Cases often correspond to the SemanticRoles in the Sentence.

InflectionalUnit
type: Class
subclass of: SublexicalUnit
comment: InflectionalUnit is the class of sublexical unit whose members designate such grammatical categories as tense, aspect, mood etc. The various forms of an InflectionalUnit plus the stem forms a grammatical paradigm and express a grammatical contrast that is obligatory for its stem's part of speech in some given grammatical context. An InflectionalUnit does not alter the partOfSpeech feature of the Root or Stem it attaches to. It is typically located farther from its Root than a derivational unit and produces a predictable, nonidiosyncratic change of meaning (Crystal 1980:184; Hartmann and Stork 1972:112; Mish et al. 1990:620; Bybee 1985:2, 99).

InternalAttribute
type: Class
subclass of: Attribute
comment: Any Attribute of an Entity that is an internal property of the Entity, e.g. its shape, its color, its fragility, etc.

LexicalUnit
type: Class
subclass of: MorphoSyntacticUnit
comment: LexicalUnit is the class of morphosyntactic units which are expressed as individual units, or words, in a language. They are constituents at the Phrase level and above. They are sometimes identifiable according to such criteria as: (1) they are the minimal possible units in a reply; (2) their phonological expressions have features such as a regular stress pattern, and phonological changes conditioned by or blocked at Word boundaries; (3) they are the largest units resistant to insertion of new constituents within their boundaries; or (4) they are the smallest constituents that can be moved within a Sentence without making the Sentence ungrammatical (Hartmann and Stork 1972: 256; Crystal 1980: 168, 383, 384; Cruse 1986: 3536; Mish et al. 1990: 1358; Pike and Pike 1982: 462).

LinguisticUnit
type: Class
subclass of: Abstract
comment: The class of entities is meant to be a container for mental linguistic units of all kinds, including discourse, morphosyntactic, phonological and semantic.

List
type: Class
subclass of: Relation
comment: Every List is a particular ordered n-tuple of items. Generally speaking, Lists are created by means of the ListFn Function, which takes any number of items as arguments and returns a List with the items in the same order. Anything, including other Lists, may be an item in a List. Note too that Lists are extensional - two lists that have the same items in the same order are identical. Note too that a List may contain no items. In that case, the List is the NullList.

MainClause
type: Class
subclass of: Clause
comment: A main clause is an independent clause that can stand on its own as a sentence. If a sentence contains any embedded clauses, the main clause is understood as the matrix plus the embedded clauses. In the sentence 'John thinks that Mary is sick', 'John thinks that Mary is sick' is the main clause (Crystal 2001: 231).

ModalityValue
type: Class
subclass of: MorphoSyntacticFeatureValue
comment: ModalityValue is the class of values that may be associated with the feature instance 'modality'. ModalityValue is the class of all modality types found in language. Modality is the encoding of the speaker's attitudes and opinions about the expressed proposition. Modality is concerned with the encoding of the truth status of the expressed proposition as well as the propositional attitudes such as fears, wants and desires. Evidentiality is also closely related and is often part of the formal mood system of a language. A formal distinction is often made between modal and mood systems in the grammar. However, here they are conflated as Modality (Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca 1994: 176; Palmer 2001: 1).

MorphoSyntacticFeatureValue
type: Class
subclass of: FeatureValue
comment: MorphoSyntacticFeatureValue is the class of values that may be associated with instances of MorphoSyntacticFeature. In a FeatureSystem, these dictate the formal properties of the grammar and may or may not be true semantically. A set of FeatureValues forms an integral part of a language's FeatureSystem (Pollard and Sag 1994; Maxwell, Simons, and Hayashi 2001).

MorphoSyntacticUnit
type: Class
subclass of: LinguisticUnit
comment: The class of entities which may be construed as the elements of a language. Such units are meant to serve as ontological containers for mental objects or representations. In some theories, these may correspond to the notion of a morphemes and constructions. In a feature system, these elements carry MorphoSyntacticFeatures.

Nominal
type: Class
subclass of: noun
comment: A nominal is a partOfSpeech whose members differ grammatically from a substantive but which functions as one (Crystal 1997:260; Mish et al. 1990:801).

NominalParticle
type: Class
subclass of: Particle
comment: A nominal particle is a member of a closed class of particles that co-occur with nouns.

NonGrammaticalCase
type: Class
subclass of: CaseValue
comment: Subsumes the Cases that are assigned by the verb. These Cases often correspond to the SemanticRoles in the Sentence.

NonspatialCase
type: Class
subclass of: NonGrammaticalCase
comment: This subsumes cases which are non-grammatical and non-spatial.

noun
type: Class
subclass of: PartOfSpeechValue
comment: A noun is a broad classification of parts of speech which include substantives and nominals (Crystal 1997:371; Mish et al. 1990:1176).

NumberValue
type: Class
subclass of: MorphoSyntacticFeatureValue
comment: NumberValue is the class of values that may be associated with the feature instance 'number'. NumberValue is the class of all grammatical number types found in language. Number is a grammatical category often found on nouns, pronouns, and verb agreement that expresses count distinctions--such as 'one' or 'more than one'. The count distinctions typically, but not always, correspond to the actual count of the referents of the marked noun or Pronoun (Crystal 1980: 245; Hartmann and Stork 1972: 155; Mish et al. 1990: 811).

Numeral
type: Class
subclass of: Quantifier
comment: A numeral is a partOfSpeech whose members function most typically as adjectives or pronouns and express a number, or relation to the number, such as one of the following: quantity, sequence, frequency, fraction (Hartmann and Stork 1972:155; Pei and Gaynor 1954:149).

Object
type: Class
subclass of: Physical
comment: Corresponds roughly to the class of ordinary objects. Examples include normal physical objects, geographical regions, and locations of Processes, the complement of Objects in the Physical class. In a 4D ontology, an Object is something whose spatiotemporal extent is thought of as dividing into spatial parts roughly parallel to the time-axis.

OrthAffix
type: Class
subclass of: OrthPart
comment: An OrthAffix is a OrthPart that is joined before, after, around, or within an OrthRoot or OrthStem (Crystal 1980: 17; Hartmann and Stork 1972: 6; Mish et al. 1990: 62).

OrthCircumfix
type: Class
subclass of: OrthAffix
comment: An OrthCircumfix is an OrthAffix that is attached around a OrthRoot or OrthStem

OrthCompound
type: Class
subclass of: ComplexOrthWord
comment: An OrthCompound is an expression made up of two or more OrthRoots.

OrthInfix
type: Class
subclass of: OrthAffix
comment: An OrthInfix is an OrthAffix that is inserted within a OrthRoot (Hartmann and Stork 1972: 111).

OrthPart
type: Class
subclass of: OrthographicExpression
comment: OrthPart is the subclass of written expressions whose members are not orthographically independent, that is, they cannot stand alone as words but compose to form words. Note that an OrthPart is not the same as a single character. Although, some OrthParts are characters.

OrthPhrase
type: Class
subclass of: OrthographicExpression
comment: An OrthPhrase realizes a PhraseUnit.

OrthPrefix
type: Class
subclass of: OrthAffix
comment: An OrthPrefix is an OrthAffix that is joined before a OrthRoot or OrthStem (Crystal 1980: 281; Hartmann and Stork 1972: 182; Mish et al. 1990: 927).

OrthRoot
type: Class
subclass of: OrthPart
comment: Some expression is an OrthRoot if it realizes a LinguisticUnit which is either a Bound or FreeRoot.

OrthStem
type: Class
subclass of: OrthPart
comment: An OrthStem realizes either a Boundor FreeStem.

OrthSuffix
type: Class
subclass of: OrthAffix
comment: A OrthSuffix is an OrthAffix that is attached to the end of a OrthRoot or OrthStem (Crystal 1980: 340; Hartmann and Stork 1972: 226; Mish et al. 1990: 1179).

OrthWord
type: Class
subclass of: OrthographicExpression
comment: An OrthWord is the fundamental unit of an orthography, usually set off by white space.

OrthographicExpression
type: Class
subclass of: SymbolicString
comment: An OrthographicExpression is an orthographic unit composed of the standard characters of an orthographic system. An OrthographicExpression is governed by the orthographic combinatorial rules of a particular language. OrthographicExpressions are not transcriptions of any external entity, but independent linguistic expressions which refer directly to the LinguisticUnits of the language. They are expressions of some human language, possibly no longer spoken.

OrthographicTranscription
type: Class
subclass of: Transcription
comment: An OrthographicTranscription is composed in the native orthogrphy, as when a an English speaking transcriber transcribes an English conversation.

PartOfSpeechValue
type: Class
subclass of: MorphoSyntacticFeatureValue
comment: PartOfSpeechValue is the value associated with partOfSpeech feature. PartOfSpeechValue is the class of all lexical types found in language. While a particular theory may not utilize the notion part of speech, it is useful as part of a FeatureSystem. The set of part of speech values for a particular language can be described based on how words behave in the syntax (Payne 1997: 33; Maxwell, Simons, and Hayashi 2001).

Particle
type: Class
subclass of: PartOfSpeechValue
comment: A particle is a partOfSpeech whose members do not belong to one of the main classes of words, is invariable, and typically has grammatical or pragmatic meaning.

PersonValue
type: Class
subclass of: MorphoSyntacticFeatureValue
comment: PersonValue is the class of values that may be associated with the feature instance 'person'. PersonValue is the class of all grammatical person types found in language. Person indicates the number and nature of the participants in a situation. Usually a three-way contrast is found: first, second, and third person. Other formal distinctions in languages include: inclusive/exlusive, honorific/intimate, and male/female (Crystal 1997: 285).

PersonalPronoun
type: Class
subclass of: Pronoun
comment: A personal pronoun is a pronoun that expresses a distinction of person deixis (Mish et al. 1990:878).

PhaseAspect
type: Class
subclass of: AspectValue
comment: PhaseAspect encodes some portion of the event, the initial, final or core part (Bickel 1997: 116; Sasse 2002).

PhonemicTranscription
type: Class
subclass of: Transcription
comment: A PhonemicTranscription is composed of characters that correspond to phonemes of a language.

PhoneticTranscription
type: Class
subclass of: Transcription
comment: A PhoneticTranscription is composed of characters that correspond to phones of a language.

PhraseUnit
type: Class
subclass of: MorphoSyntacticUnit
comment: PhraseUnit

Physical
type: Class
subclass of: Entity
comment: An entity that has a location in space-time. Note that locations are themselves understood to have a location in space-time.

PolarityValue
type: Class
subclass of: MorphoSyntacticFeatureValue
comment: PolarityValue is the class of values that may be associated with the feature instance 'polarity'. PolarityValue is the class of all polarity types found in language.

PositionalCase
type: Class
subclass of: SpatialCase
comment: Represents a static spatial relation between two Objects.

ProForm
type: Class
subclass of: PartOfSpeechValue
comment: A ProForm is a partOfSpeech whose members usually substitute for other constituents, including phrases, clauses, or sentences, and whose meaning is recoverable from the linguistic or extralinguistic context (Schachter 1985:24-25; Crystal 1997:310).

Process
type: Class
subclass of: Physical
comment: Intuitively, the class of things that happen and have temporal parts or stages. Examples include extended events like a football match or a race, actions like Searching and Reading, and biological processes. The formal definition is: anything that lasts for a time but is not an Object. Note that a Process may have participants 'inside' it which are Objects, such as the players in a football match. In a 4D ontology, a Process is something whose spatiotemporal extent is thought of as dividing into temporal stages roughly perpendicular to the time-axis.

Proclitic
type: Class
subclass of: Clitic
comment: A proclitic is a clitic that precedes the lexical unit to which it is phonologically joined (Crystal 1980:64; Hartmann and Stork 1972:185; Pei and Gaynor 1954:176; Mish et al. 1990:938).

Pronoun
type: Class
subclass of: ProForm
comment: A Pronoun is a proForm which functions like a noun and substitutes for a noun or noun phrase (Crystal 1997:312; Mish et al. 1990:942).

Quantifier
type: Class
subclass of: Determiner
comment: A quantifier is a determiner that expresses a referent's definite or indefinite number or amount. A quantifier functions as a modifier of a noun, or a pronoun (Crystal 1997:317; Mish et al. 1990:963).

QuantitativeAspect
type: Class
subclass of: AspectValue
comment: QuantitativeAspect refers to the cardinality of the event which is represented by the predicate (de Groot 1995; Dahl 1999: 31; Sasse 2002: 227).

Relation
type: Class
subclass of: Abstract
comment: The Class of relations. There are three kinds of Relation: Predicate, Function, and List. Predicates and Functions both denote sets of ordered n-tuples. The difference between these two Classes is that Predicates cover formula-forming operators, while Functions cover term-forming operators. A List, on the other hand, is a particular ordered n-tuple.

RelativeTense
type: Class
subclass of: TenseValue
comment: RelativeTense locates the situation in question in relation to a contextually determined temporal reference point, regardless of the latter's temporal relation to the moment of utterance (Comrie 1985: 56).

RelevanceAspect
type: Class
subclass of: AspectValue
comment: RelevanceAspect encodes the degree to which some event is relevant in relation to some reference time (Givón 2001: 296).

SelfConnectedObject
type: Class
subclass of: Object
comment: A SelfConnectedObject is any Object that does not consist of two or more disconnected parts.

Set
type: Class
subclass of: SetOrClass
comment: SetOrClass that satisfies extensionality as well as other constraints specified by some choice of set theory. Sets differ from Classes in two important respects. First, Sets are extensional - two Sets with the same elements are identical. Second, a Set can be an arbitrary stock of objects. That is, there is no requirement that Sets have an associated condition that determines their membership.

SetOrClass
type: Class
subclass of: Abstract
comment: The SetOrClass of Sets and Classes, i.e. any instance of Abstract that has elements or instances.

SimpleOrthPart
type: Class
subclass of: OrthPart
comment: SimpleOrthPart is the subclass of OrthPart whose members cannt be decomposed further into other instances of SimpleOrthPart.

SimpleOrthWord
type: Class
subclass of: OrthWord
comment: A SimpleOrthWord has no internal parts which are also WrittenExpressions.

SizeValue
type: Class
subclass of: MorphoSyntacticFeatureValue
comment: SizeValue is the class of values that may be associated with the feature instance 'size'. SizeValue is the class of all size types found in language.

SpatialCase
type: Class
subclass of: NonGrammaticalCase
comment: This subsumes cases that involve literal spatial arrangement, static or dynamic.

SublexicalUnit
type: Class
subclass of: MorphoSyntacticUnit
comment: SublexicalUnit is the class of morphosyntactic unit which may not be expressed alone and, hence, are bound to other morphosyntactic units.

SubordinateClause
type: Class
subclass of: Clause
comment: A subordinate clause is a dependent clause that cannot stand on its own as a sentence. A matrix clause combined with a subordinate clause form a clause. In the sentence 'John thinks that Mary is sick', 'Mary is sick' is the subordinate clause.

SubordinatingConnective
type: Class
subclass of: Connective
comment: A subordinating connective is a connective that links constructions by making one of them a constituent of another. The subordinating conjunction typically marks the incorporated constituent (Crystal 1997:370; Mish et al. 1990:1175).

SymbolicString
type: Class
subclass of: WrittenExpression
comment: SymbolicString is a sequence of one or more Characters.

TenseValue
type: Class
subclass of: MorphoSyntacticFeatureValue
comment: TenseValue is the class of values that may be associated with the feature instance 'tense'. TenseValue is the class of all tense types found in language.

Term
type: Class
subclass of: SymbolicString
subclass of: Restriction
  on property: names
  min cardinality: 1
comment: This class includes includes any expression that is not conventially a part of a written language, but is used to name various features, values, and other linguistic constructs. Terms are used in interlinear text, often on the second line, to annotate or 'gloss' transcriptions.

Transcription
type: Class
subclass of: SymbolicString
comment: A Transcription is something that represents some other entity observed by a transcriber. Therefore, it is an interpretation of an original source. For example, this is usually the primary data in interlinear glossed text. The key difference between a transcription and an orthographic expression is that a transcription involves two entities, a transcriber and a source (speaking event, audio file, video file, some other orthographic expression).

Transliteration
type: Class
subclass of: Transcription
comment: A Transliteration is a representation of some native orthography by some other system.

UnderlyingFormTranscription
type: Class
subclass of: Transcription
comment: An UnderlyingFormTranscription is composed of SymbolicStrings which correspond to the underlying form of the LinguisticUnits of the language.

Verb
type: Class
subclass of: PartOfSpeechValue
comment: A Verb is a part of speech whose members typically signal events and actions; constitute, singly or in a phrase, a minimal predicate in a clause; govern the number and types of other constituents which may occur in the clause; and, in inflectional languages, may be inflected for tense, aspect, voice, modality, or agreement with other constituents in person, number, or grammatical gender (Crystal 1997:409; Mish et al. 1990:1309; Givón 1984:52; Payne 1997:47).

ViewPointAspect
type: Class
subclass of: AspectValue
comment: ViewPointAspect is a deictic category that encodes the particilar way an event is represented, either as from within the event itself or from outside the event (Comrie 1976: 16-40; Givón 2001: 289).

WrittenExpression
type: Class
subclass of: ContentBearingObject
subclass of: Restriction
  on property: hasForm
  cardinality: 1
comment: A very general category subsuming any entity which is the product writing process. WrittenExpressions are necessarily symbolic.

AbessiveCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: NonSpatialCase
comment: AbessiveCase expresses the lack or absence of the referent of the noun it marks. It has the meaning of the English preposition 'without' (Pei and Gaynor 1954: 3,35; Gove, et al. 1966: 3).

AblativeCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: DirectionalCase
comment: AblativeCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location from which another referent is moving. It has the meaning 'from'.

AbsolutePresentTense
type: NamedIndividual
type: AbsoluteTense
comment: AbsolutePresentTense locates the situation in question at the present moment, though the situation rarely coincides exactly with the present moment (Comrie 1985: 37).

AbsolutiveCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: GrammaticalCase
comment: AbsolutiveCase in ergative-absolutive languages mark referents that would generally be the subjects of intransitive verbs or the objects of transitive verbs in the translational equivalents of nominative-accusative languages (Anderson 1985: 181; Crystal 1985: 1; Andrews and Avery 1985: 138).

AccusativeCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: GrammaticalCase
comment: AccusativeCase in nominative-accusative languages marks certain syntactic functions, usually direct objects (Hartmann and Stork 1972: 3,156; Crystal 1980: 11,246; Andrews and Avery 1985: 75; Anderson; 1985: 181; Mish et al. 1990: 50).

AdessiveCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: PositionalCase
comment: AdessiveCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location near/at which another referent exists. It has the meaning of 'at' or 'near' (Crystal 1997: 8).

Adjectivalization
type: NamedIndividual
type: PartOfSpeechValue
comment: An adjectivalization is a partOfSpeech whose members differ grammatically from adjectives but which functions as them (Crystal 1997:260; Mish et al. 1990:801).

AdversativeCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: NonSpatialCase
comment: AdversativeCase expresses an antithetical circumstance. Adversative meaning can be expressed in several grammatical ways, such as through a conjunction (but), adverbial (however, nevertheless, yet, in spite of that, on the other hand), or preposition (despite, except, apart from, notwithstanding) (Crystal 1997: 11).

AllativeCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: DirectionalCase
comment: AllativeCase expresses motion to or toward the referent of the noun it marks (Pei and Gaynor 1954: 6,9,216; Lyons 1968: 299; Crystal 1985: 1213; Gove, et al. 1966: 55,2359).

Assumptive
type: NamedIndividual
type: ModalityValue
comment: Assumptive encodes the fact that the speaker came to believe the content of the expression through (possibly) unsound inference procedure. That is, it is at least reasonalbe (Palmer 2001: 6-8).

AuditoryEvidential
type: NamedIndividual
type: ModalityValue
comment: AuditoryEvidential encodes the fact that the speaker came to believe the content of the expression through direct auditory experience; they heard it. This does not include spoken reported accounts, but only direct sensory evdience, such as the situation of 'hearing a tree fall' (Palmer 2001: 38).

AversiveCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: NonSpatialCase
comment: Marks the noun whose referent is the object of avoidance; also called the evitative (Blake 1998: 154).

BenefactiveCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: NonSpatialCase
comment: BenefactiveCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks receives the benefit of the situation expressed by the clause (Crystal 1980: 43; Gove, et al. 1966: 203).

Categorical
type: NamedIndividual
type: ModalityValue
comment: Categorical encodes that fact that the speaker knows the expressed proposition to be true (Palmer 2001: 37, 68-69).

CausalCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: NonSpatialCase
comment: Used to mark the noun whose referent is the cause of some event, found in Archi (Kibrik 1998: 468).

CloseFutureTense
type: NamedIndividual
type: AbsoluteFutureTense
comment: CloseFutureTense, also called 'immediate future', locates the situation in question shortly after the moment of utterance (Dahl 1985:121; Comrie 1985:94; Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca 1994: 244-245).

ComitativeCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: NonSpatialCase
comment: ComitativeCase expresses accompaniment. It carries the meaning 'with' or 'accompanied by' (Anderson, Stephen 1985: 186; Pei and Gaynor 1954: 42;Dixon, R. 1972: 12; Gove, et al. 1966: 455).

Commisive
type: NamedIndividual
type: ModalityValue
comment: Commisive encodes that the speaker promises or threatens to perform some action (Palmer 2001: 10, 72).

ComparativeCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: NonSpatialCase
comment: ComparitiveCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks has some property to a lesser extent than that of the referent of some other noun; found in Archi (Kibrik 1998: 469) and in some Dravidian languages (Blake 1998: 155).

CompletiveAspect
type: NamedIndividual
type: PhaseAspect
comment: CompletiveAspect, also called the egressive, encodes the end portion of some event. In order to be a completive, the case in question should be clearly differentiated in the grammar from an ordinary perfective which also implies that the event is completed (Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca 1994: 54; Payne 1997: 240; Dahl 1999: 33).

ContablativeCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: DirectionalCase
comment: ContablativeCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location from near which another referent is moving. It has the meaning 'from near'.

ContallativeCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: DirectionalCase
comment: ContallativeCase expresses that something is moving toward the vicinity of the referent of the noun it marks. It has the meaning 'towards the vicinity of'.

ConterminativeCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: DirectionalCase
comment: ConterminativeCase expresses the notion of something moving into the vicinity of the referent of the noun it marks, but not through that region. It has the meaning 'moving into the vicinity of'.

ContlativeCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: DirectionalCase
comment: ContlativeCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location in the vicinity of which another referent is moving. It has the meaning 'in the vicinity of'.

DativeCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: GrammaticalCase
comment: DativeCase marks 1) Indirect objects (for languages in which they are held to exist) or 2) nouns having the role of recipient (as of things given), beneficiary of an action, or possessor of an item (Crystal 1980: 102; Gove, et al. 1966: 577).

Deductive
type: NamedIndividual
type: ModalityValue
comment: Deductive encodes the fact that the speaker came to believe the content of the expression through sound inference procedure. That is, it is the only possible conclusion (Palmer 2001: 6-8).

DelativeCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: DirectionalCase
comment: DelativeCase expresses motion downward from the referent of the noun it marks (Pei and Gaynor 1954: 53; Gove, et al. 1966: 595).

DirectEvidential
type: NamedIndividual
type: ModalityValue
comment: DirectEvidential, also called sensory, encodes the fact that the speaker came to believe the content of the expression by having direct sensory experience of some situation; this does not include hearing about it from someone else (Palmer 2001: 35-36).

Dubitative
type: NamedIndividual
type: ModalityValue
comment: Dubitative encodes a speakers doubt or uncertainty about a proposition (Palmer 2001).

ElativeCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: DirectionalCase
comment: ElativeCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location out of which another referent is moving. It has the meaning 'out of' (Lyons 1968: 299; Pei and Gaynor 1954: 64; Crystal 1985: 106; Gove, et al. 1966: 730).

EquativeCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: NonSpatialCase
comment: EquativeCase expresses 'likeness of' or 'identity to' the referent of the noun it marks. It mean: 'as', 'like', and 'in the capacity of'; in some instances, it may have the meaning 'occurs in the manner typical of the referent' (Kibrik 1998: 469).

ErgativeCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: GrammaticalCase
comment: ErgativeCase in ergative-absolutive languages generally identifies the subject of transitive verbs in the translation equivalents of nominative-accusative Languages such as English (Crystal 1980: 134; Hartmann and Stork 1972: 78; Pei and Gaynor 1954: 67; Andrews and Avery 1985: 138).

EssiveCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: PositionalCase
comment: EssiveCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location at which another referent exists (Lyons 1968: 299,301; Gove, et al. 1966: 778; Crystal 1985: 112; Blake 1994: 154-5).

FolkloreEvidential
type: NamedIndividual
type: ModalityValue
comment: FolkloreEvidential encodes the fact that the speaker came to believe the content of the expression through legend, folklore or some other established tradition (Palmer 2001: 40).

FutureInFutureTense
type: NamedIndividual
type: AbsoluteRelativeTense
comment: FutureInFutureTense locates the situation in question in the future, relative to a temporal reference point that itself is located in the future relative to the moment of utterance.

FutureInPastTense
type: NamedIndividual
type: AbsoluteRelativeTense
comment: FutureInPastTense locates the situation in question in the future, relative to a contextually determined temporal reference point that itself must be located in the past relative to the moment of utterance.

FuturePerfectTense
type: NamedIndividual
type: AbsoluteRelativeTense
comment: FuturePerfectTense locates the situation in question before a contextually determined temporal reference point that must be located in the future relative to the moment of utterance (Comrie 1985:69-71).

GeneralAbilitive
type: NamedIndividual
type: ModalityValue
comment: GeneralAbilitive is a very frequently occurring modality which encodes that the agent is able to perform some action. The conditions are external to the agent (Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca 1994: 177; Palmer 2001: 76)

GenitiveCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: GrammaticalCase
comment: GenitiveCase is used to mark the noun whose referent is the possessor of the referent of another noun (Crystal 1980: 161; Hartmann and Stork 1972: 9495,180; Pei and Gaynor 1954: 82,172; Anderson 1985: 185; Mish et al. 1990: 511; Fleming 1988: 10).

HabitualAspect
type: NamedIndividual
type: QuantitativeAspect
comment: HabitualAspect, also called the durative, encodes the situation where an event takes place over an extended period of time. This is, it refers to not just one event but many events of the same type. The occurrence of the events may be protracted indefinitely in time. If the event is a state, then the state is said to hold for some time. If the event is an achievement or an accomplishment, then it may occur again and again. The time interval which is relevant to the habitual is relatively longer than in the case of the iterative (Comrie 1976: 28; Bybee 1985: 142; Payne 1997: 241; Dahl 1999: 32).

HesternalPastTense
type: NamedIndividual
type: AbsolutePastTense
comment: HesternalPastTense locates the situation in question somewhere in the span beginning with the period defined culturally as 'yesterday' and extends back through some period that is considered nonremote (Comrie 1985:87-88; Dahl 1985:126).

HodiernalFutureTense
type: NamedIndividual
type: AbsoluteFutureTense
comment: HodiernalFutureTense locates the situation in question after the moment of utterance within the span culturally defined as 'today' (Comrie 1985: 86; Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca 1994: 247).

HodiernalPastTense
type: NamedIndividual
type: AbsolutePastTense
comment: HodiernalPastTense locates the situation in question before the moment of utterance within the span culturally defined as 'today' (Comrie 1985:87; Dahl 1985:125-126)

IllativeCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: DirectionalCase
comment: IllativeCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location into which another referent is moving. It has the meaning 'into' (Lyons 1968: 299; Gove, et al. 1966: 1126; Crystal 1985: 152).

ImmediatePastTense
type: NamedIndividual
type: AbsolutePastTense
comment: ImmediatePastTense locates the situation in question at a time considered very recent in relation to the moment of utterance (Comrie 1985: 87).

ImperfectiveAspect
type: NamedIndividual
type: ViewPointAspect
comment: ImperfectiveAspect encodes the internal temporal structure of an event from within. It indicates that the event is a process without emphasizing its end points, although there may be the entailment that the event has a starting/end point (Comrie 1976: 24; Dahl 1999: 33).

InablativeCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: DirectionalCase
comment: InablativeCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location from within which another referent is moving. It has the meaning 'from within'.

InallativeCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: DirectionalCase
comment: InallativeCase expresses that something is moving toward the region that is inside the referent of the noun it marks. It has the meaning 'towards in(side)'.

InceptiveAspect
type: NamedIndividual
type: PhaseAspect
comment: InceptiveAspect, also called the ingressive, encodes the beginning portion of some event (Bybee 1985: 147, 149; Payne 1997: 240).

Indicative
type: NamedIndividual
type: ModalityValue
comment: Indicative

IndirectEvidential
type: NamedIndividual
type: ModalityValue
comment: IndirectEvidential, also called reported, encodes the fact that the speaker came to believe the content of the expression from a source other than by experiencing the situation directly (Palmer 2001: 40).

InessiveCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: PositionalCase
comment: InessiveCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location within which another referent exists. It has the meaning of 'within' or 'inside' (Lyons 1968: 299; Gove, et al. 1966: 1156; Crystal 1985: 156). X in Y.

InferenceEvidential
type: NamedIndividual
type: ModalityValue
comment: InferenceEvidential encodes the fact that the speaker came to believe the content of the expression through some kind of internal inference procedure, e.g., deduction, abduction, induction (Palmer 2001: 6-8).

InstrumentalCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: GrammaticalCase
comment: InstrumentalCase indicates that the referent of the noun it marks is the means of the accomplishment of the action expressed by the clause (Crystal 1980: 187; Hartmann and Stork 1972: 114; Mish et al. 1990: 627).

InterablativeCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: DirectionalCase
comment: InterablativeCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location from between which another referent is moving. It has the meaning 'from inbetween'.

InterallativeCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: DirectionalCase
comment: InterallativeCase expresses that something is moving toward the region that is in the middle of the referent of the noun it marks. It has the meaning 'towards the middle of'.

InteressiveCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: PositionalCase
comment: InteressiveCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location between which another referent exists. It has the meaning of 'between'.

InterlativeCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: DirectionalCase
comment: InterlativeCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location between which another referent is moving. It has the meaning 'to the middle of'.

InterminativeCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: DirectionalCase
comment: 'into in(side of)'.

InterterminativeCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: DirectionalCase
comment: InterterminativeCase expresses the notion of something moving into the middle of the referent of the noun it marks, but not through it. It has the meaning 'into the middle of'.

IntertranslativeCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: DirectionalCase
comment: IntertranslativeCase expresses the notion of something moving along a trajectory between the referent of the noun it marks. It has the meaning 'along the in between.

IntranslativeCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: DirectionalCase
comment: IntranslativeCase expresses the notion of something moving through the referent of the noun it marks. It has the meaning 'along through'.

Irrealis
type: NamedIndividual
type: ModalityValue
comment: Irrealis

IterativeAspect
type: NamedIndividual
type: QuantitativeAspect
comment: IterativeAspect, also called repetitives, encodes a number of events of the same type that are repeated on a particular occasion. The time interval which is relevant to the iterative is relatively shorter than in the case of the habitual (Bybee 1985: 150; Bybee, Perkins and Pagliuca 1994: 127).

LativeCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: DirectionalCase
comment: LativeCase expresses 'motion up to the location of,' or 'as far as' the referent of the noun it marks (Pei and Gaynor 1954: 121; Gove, et al. 1966: 1277).

MalefactiveCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: NonSpatialCase
comment: Opposite of BenefactiveCase; used when the marked noun is negatively affected in the clause.

MentalAbilitive
type: NamedIndividual
type: ModalityValue
comment: MentalAbilitive encodes an internal condition of ability, whereby the agent has the mental capacity to perform some action (Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca 1994: 192; Palmer 2001: 77)

NominativeCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: GrammaticalCase
comment: NominativeCase identifies clause subjects in nominative-accusative languages. It is usually the unmarked case. Nouns used in isolation often have this case (Crystal 1980: 242; Pei and Gaynor 1954: 147; Mish et al. 1990: 801; Hartmann and Stork 1972: 224).

NonFutureTense
type: NamedIndividual
type: AbsoluteTense
comment: NonFutureTense locates the situation in question at or before the moment of utterance, and contrasts with a FutureTense (Comrie 1985: 49).

NonPastTense
type: NamedIndividual
type: AbsoluteTense
comment: NonPastTense locates the situation in question at or after the moment of utterance, and contrasts with a past tense (Comrie 1985:48-49).

NonProgressiveAspect
type: NamedIndividual
type: DynamicityAspect
comment: NonProgressiveAspect is essentially the opposite of ProgressiveAspect; it encodes a single event as a state or non-process. It is a controversial category, though there may be languages in which it contrasts witht he ProgressiveAspect (Comrie 1976: 32-35; Bybee, Perkins and Pagliuca 1994: 137-139).

NonRecentPastTense
type: NamedIndividual
type: AbsolutePastTense
comment: NonRecentPastTense locates the situation in question before the range of a contrasting recent past tense. This category must be defined relative to a RecentPastTense.

NonRemotePastTense
type: NamedIndividual
type: AbsolutePastTense
comment: NonRemotePastTense locates the situation in question not more than a few days ago, in contrast to a RemotePastTense. This category must be defined relative to a RemotePastTense.

NonVisualEvidential
type: NamedIndividual
type: ModalityValue
comment: NonVisualEvidential encodes the fact that the speaker came to believe the content of the expression directly in a way other than through visual experience; they heard it, smelled it, tasted it, ect. (Palmer 2001: 36, 57).

Obligative
type: NamedIndividual
type: ModalityValue
comment: Obligative is a very common modal category and encodes that the subject is required to perform the action expressed by the predicate (Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca 1994: 177; Palmer 2001: 71).

Optative
type: NamedIndividual
type: ModalityValue
comment: Optative encodes that the speaker wishes or hopes that the expressed proposition be the case (Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca 1994: 179; Palmer 2001: 204).

PartitiveCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: NonSpatialCase
comment: PartitiveCase expresses the partial nature of the referent of the noun it marks, as opposed to expressing the whole unit or class of which the referent is a part. This case may be found in items such as the following: existential clauses, nouns that are accompanied by numerals or units of measure, or predications of material from which something is made. It often has a meaning similar to the English word 'some' (Pei and Gaynor 1954: 161; Richards, Platt, and Weber 1985: 208; Quirk, et al. 1985: 249; Gove, et al. 1966: 1648; Sebeok 1946: 1214).

PerfectAspect
type: NamedIndividual
type: RelevanceAspect
comment: PerfectAspect indicates that the event is relevant in relation to some reference time. Thus, it encodes both a temporal and a discourse relation between two time points. It can contrast with the perfective (Comrie 1976: 52-65; Givón 2001: 296).

PerfectiveAspect
type: NamedIndividual
type: ViewPointAspect
comment: PerfectiveAspect, sometimes called the aorists, encodes the totality of some event, that is, the event viewed from outside, in its entirety as a whole. Because perfectives encode the entire event, the event is necessarily complete. A perfective may be used to encode a several events when they are to be viewed as a whole (Comrie 1976: 12, 18; Payne 1997: 239; Dahl 1999: 33)

PerlativeCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: DirectionalCase
comment: PerlativeCase expresses that something moved 'through','across', or 'along' the referent of the noun that is marked (Blake 1998: 38, 203).

Permissive
type: NamedIndividual
type: ModalityValue
comment: Permissive encodes that the subject has permission to perform the action expressed by the predicate (Palmer 2001: 10, 71).

PermutativeCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: NonSpatialCase
comment: PermutativeCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks takes part in some event instead of the referent of some other noun; it means roughly ' instead of'; found in Archi (Kibrik 1998: 469).

PhysicalAbilitive
type: NamedIndividual
type: ModalityValue
comment: PhysicalAbilitive encodes an internal condition of ability, whereby the agent has the physical capacity to perform some action (Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca 1994: 192; Palmer 2001: 77).

PossessedCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: NonSpatialCase
comment: PossessedCase is used to mark the noun whose referent is possessed by the referent of another noun.

PossessorCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: NonSpatialCase
comment: PossessorCase is used to mark the noun whose referent is the possessor of the referent of another noun (Blake 1998: 149).

PostHodiernalFutureTense
type: NamedIndividual
type: AbsoluteFutureTense
comment: PostHodiernalFutureTense locates the situation in question after the span that is culturally defined as 'today' (Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca 1994: 247).

PreHesternalPastTense
type: NamedIndividual
type: AbsolutePastTense
comment: PreHesternalPastTense locates the situation in question before that of an opposing hesternal past tense. This category must be defined relative to a HesternalPastTense (Bybee, Perkins, Pagliuca 1994: 98).

PreHodiernalPastTense
type: NamedIndividual
type: AbsolutePastTense
comment: PreHodiernalPastTense locates the situation in question before that of a contrasting HodiernalPastTense. This category must be defined relative to a HodiernalPastTense (Bybee, Perkins, Pagliuca 1994: 98).

ProgressiveAspect
type: NamedIndividual
type: DynamicityAspect
comment: ProgressiveAspect, also called the continuative or the durative, encodes a single event as an ongoing process. Thus, states cannot generally be encoded with the progressive (Comrie 1976: 32-35; Bybee, Perkins and Pagliuca 1994: 127-139; Payne 1997: 240).

ProprietiveCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: NonSpatialCase
comment: This case expresses the presence of the referent of the noun it marks. It has the meaning of the English verb 'have' (Blake 1994: 156).

Realis
type: NamedIndividual
type: ModalityValue
comment: Realis

RecentPastTense
type: NamedIndividual
type: AbsolutePastTense
comment: RecentPastTense locates the situation in question prior to the present moment, but by culturally and situationally defined criteria, usually within the span ranging from yesterday to a week or a few months previous (Comrie 1985:87; Dahl 1985:121-122).

RelativeFutureTense
type: NamedIndividual
type: RelativeTense
comment: RelativeFutureTense locates the situation in question after a contextually determined temporal reference point, regardless of the latter's relation to the moment of utterance.

RelativeNonFutureTense
type: NamedIndividual
type: RelativeTense
comment: RelativeNonFutureTense locates the situation in question simultaneous to, or before, a contextually determined temporal reference point, regardless of the latter's relation to the moment of utterance.

RelativeNonPastTense
type: NamedIndividual
type: RelativeTense
comment: RelativeNonPastTense locates the situation in question simultaneous to, or after, a contextually determined temporal reference point, regardless of the latter's relation to the moment of utterance.

RelativePastTense
type: NamedIndividual
type: RelativeTense
comment: RelativePastTense locates the situation in question before that of a contextually determined temporal reference point (Comrie 1985: 104).

RelativePresentTense
type: NamedIndividual
type: RelativeTense
comment: RelativePresentTense locates the situation in question simultaneously with some contextually determined temporal reference point.

RemoteFutureTense
type: NamedIndividual
type: AbsoluteFutureTense
comment: RemoteFutureTense locates the situation in question at a time that is considered relatively distant. It is characteristically after the span of time culturally defined as 'tomorrow' (Dahl 1985:121; Comrie 1985:94).

RemotePastTense
type: NamedIndividual
type: AbsolutePastTense
comment: RemotePastTense locates the situation in question prior to the present moment, usually more than a few days ago (Dahl 1985:121; Comrie 1985:88).

SecondHandEvidential
type: NamedIndividual
type: ModalityValue
comment: SecondHandEvidential, also called the quotative, encodes the fact that the speaker came to believe the content of the expression from communicating with someone else (Palmer 2001: 40).

SimplePastTense
type: NamedIndividual
type: AbsolutePastTense
comment: SimplePastTense is a very generic AbsolutePastTense which locates the situation in question prior to the present moment, with no specification on the distance in time (Comrie 1985).

Speculative
type: NamedIndividual
type: ModalityValue
comment: Speculative encodes the fact that the speaker considers, or 'entertains', the content of the expression. That is, it is in the realm of possibility, though the speaker does not necessarilty believe it (Palmer 2001: 6-8, 25).

StillTense
type: NamedIndividual
type: AbsoluteTense
comment: StillTense is similar to AbsolutePresentTense but carries the presupposition that an event or state held before the moment of utterance. In positive declarative clauses, still tense asserts that the event or state holds at the moment of utterance (Comrie 1985: 54).

SubablativeCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: DirectionalCase
comment: SubablativeCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location from under which another referent is moving. It has the meaning 'from under'.

SuballativeCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: DirectionalCase
comment: SuballativeCase expresses that something is moving toward the region that is under the referent of the noun it marks. It has the meaning 'towards the region that is under'.

SubessiveCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: PositionalCase
comment: SubessiveCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location under which another referent exists. It has the meaning of 'under' or 'beneath'.

Subjunctive
type: NamedIndividual
type: ModalityValue
comment: Subjunctive

SublativeCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: DirectionalCase
comment: SublativeCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location under which another referent is moving toward. It has the meaning 'towards the underneath of'.

SubterminativeCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: DirectionalCase
comment: SubterminativeCase expresses the notion of something moving into the region under the referent of the noun it marks, but not through that region. It has the meaning 'into the region under'.

SubtranslativeCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: DirectionalCase
comment: SubtranslativeCase expresses the notion of something moving along a trajectory underneath the referent of the noun it marks. It has the meaning 'along the region underneath'.

SuperablativeCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: DirectionalCase
comment: SuperlativeCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location from over which another referent is moving. It has the meaning 'from over'.

SuperallativeCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: DirectionalCase
comment: SuperallativeCase expresses that something is moving toward the region that is above the referent of the noun it marks. It has the meaning 'towards the region that is over'.

SuperessiveCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: PositionalCase
comment: SuperessiveCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location on which another referent exists. It has the meaning of 'on' or 'upon'. (Pei and Gaynor 1954: 207, Gove, et al. 1966: 2293).

SuperlativeCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: DirectionalCase
comment: SuperlativeCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location onto which another referent is moving. It has the meaning of 'onto'.

SuperterminativeCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: DirectionalCase
comment: SuperterminativeCase expresses the notion of something moving into the region over the referent of the noun it marks, but not through that region. It has the meaning 'into the region over'.

SupertranslativeCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: DirectionalCase
comment: SupertranslativeCase expresses the notion of something moving along a trajectory above the referent of the noun it marks. It has the meaning 'along the region over'.

TerminativeCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: DirectionalCase
comment: TerminativeCase expresses the notion of something into but not further than (ie, not through) the referent of the noun it marks. It has the meaning 'into but not through'.

ThirdHandEvidential
type: NamedIndividual
type: ModalityValue
comment: ThirdHandEvidential, also called the hearsay, encodes the fact that the speaker came to believe the content of the expression from a source generally considered less reliable than with a SecondHandEvidential (Palmer 2001: 40).

Timitive
type: NamedIndividual
type: ModalityValue
comment: Timitive encodes that the speaker fears somethings expressed in the proposition (Palmer 2001: 13, 22).

TranslativeCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: DirectionalCase
comment: TranslativeCase expresses that the referent of the noun, or the quality of the adjective, that it marks is the result of a process of change (Lyons 1968: 299301, Gove, et al. 1966: 813,2429, Sebeok 1946: 17, Hakulinen 1961: 70). X along, across Y.

VisualEvidential
type: NamedIndividual
type: ModalityValue
comment: VisualEvidential encodes the fact that the speaker came to believe the content of the expression through direct visual experience; they saw it (Palmer 2001: 57).

VocativeCase
type: NamedIndividual
type: NonSpatialCase
comment: VocativeCase marks a noun whose referent is being addressed (Crystal 1980: 377; Hartmann and Stork 1972: 251; Pei and Gaynor 1954: 228).

Volitive
type: NamedIndividual
type: ModalityValue
comment: Volitive encodes that the speaker is willing to perform some action (Palmer 2001: 76).

WeakObligative
type: NamedIndividual
type: ModalityValue
comment: WeakObligative encodes that the subject 'should' perform the action expressed by the predicate (Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca 1994: 186-187).

adjective
type: NamedIndividual
type: PartOfSpeechValue
comment: An adjective is a part of speech whose members modify nouns. An adjective specifies the attributes of a noun referent. Note: this is one case among many. Adjectives are a class of modifiers (Crystal 1997:8; Mish et al. 1990:56; Payne 1997:63).

Adverb
type: NamedIndividual
type: PartOfSpeechValue
comment: An adverb, narrowly defined, is a part of speech whose members modify verbs for such categories as time, manner, place, or direction. An adverb, broadly defined, is is a part of speech whose members modify any constituent class of words other than nouns, such as verbs, adjectives, adverbs, phrases, clauses, or sentences. Under this definition, the possible type of modification depends on the class of the constituent being modified (Crystal 1997:11; Mish et al. 1990:59; Payne 1997:69).

adverbializer
type: NamedIndividual
type: SubordinatingConnective
comment: An adverbializer is a subordinating connective that links a subordinate clause to a main clause, and indicates that the subordinate clause has an 'adverbial' or interpropositional relation to the main clause, indicating purpose, condition, time, and location.

agreement
type: NamedIndividual
type: ComplexMorphoSyntacticFeature
comment: Agreement marks a morphosyntactic relation between two constituents based on one or more grammatical categories.

aspect
type: NamedIndividual
type: ClosedMorphoSyntacticFeature
comment: Aspect is the grammatical encoding of various characteristics of the event referred to in an utterance. Aspect does not form a semantically contiguous class (Comrie 1976; Bybee 1985; Sasse 2002).

augmentative
type: NamedIndividual
type: SizeValue
comment: Generally, a special form of a noun that signals that the object being referred to is large relative to the usual size of such an object (Crystal 1980: 34).

cardinalNumeral
type: NamedIndividual
type: Numeral
comment: A cardinal numeral is a numeral of the class whose members are considered basic in form, are used in counting, and are used in expressing how many objects are referred to (Crystal 1997:52; Mish et al. 1990:207).

case
type: NamedIndividual
type: ClosedMorphoSyntacticFeature
comment: Case is a grammatical encoding of the relationship (syntactic or semantic) a noun bears to some other element in the sentence, such as a verb, other noun, pronoun, or adposition(Pei and Gaynor 1954: 35; Crystal 1980: 5354; Anderson 1985: 179180; Andrews 1985: 7172; Mish et al. 1990: 211; Kuno 1973: 45; Blake 2001).

classifier
type: NamedIndividual
type: NominalParticle
comment: A classifier is a partOfSpeech whose members express the classification of a noun (Crystal 1997:61; Mish et al. 1990:246; Payne 1997:107).

complementizer
type: NamedIndividual
type: SubordinatingConnective
comment: A complementizer is a connective which marks a complement clause (Crystal 1997:75).

correlativeConnective
type: NamedIndividual
type: CoordinatingConnective
comment: A correlative connective is either of a pair of coordinating conjunctions (connectives) used in ordered fashion. Typically, one is used immediately before each member of a pair of constituents (Crystal 1997:96; Mish et al. 1990:293).

definiteArticle
type: NamedIndividual
type: Article
comment: An article is a part of speech whose members refer to a specific, identifiable entity (or class of entities) (Crystal 1997:107).

demonstrative
type: NamedIndividual
type: Determiner
comment: A demonstrative is a determiner that is used deictically to indicate a referent's spatial, temporal, or discourse location. A demonstrative functions as a modifier of a noun, or a pronoun (Crystal 1997:312; Mish et al. 1990:338).

diminutive
type: NamedIndividual
type: SizeValue
comment: Generally, a special form of a noun that signals that the object being referred to is small relative to the usual size of such an object. In some cases it may be used as a term of endearment (Crystal 1980: 116).

distributiveNumeral
type: NamedIndividual
type: Numeral
comment: A distributive numeral is a numeral which expresses a group of the number specified.

ditransitiveVerb
type: NamedIndividual
type: Verb
comment: A ditransitive verb is a verb that takes two objects (Crystal 1997:397).

dual
type: NamedIndividual
type: NumberValue
comment: Dual number is number which refers to two members of a designated class (Crystal 1997: 265).

emphaticPronoun
type: NamedIndividual
type: PersonalPronoun
comment: An emphatic pronoun is a personal pronoun that is used to emphasize its referent.

existentialMarker
type: NamedIndividual
type: ProForm
comment: An existential marker is a partOfSpeech whose members are found in distinct clause types and which mark a referent's existence (Crystal 1997:142).

expletive
type: NamedIndividual
type: ProForm
comment: An expletive (also known as a dummy word) is a part of speech whose members have no meaning, but complete a sentence to make it grammatical (Crystal 1997:127; Mish et al. 1990:437).

feminine
type: NamedIndividual
type: Animate
comment: A grammatical class of nouns whose members tend to be perceived of as female.

FirstPerson
type: NamedIndividual
type: PersonValue
comment: Reference to speaker(s), usually including themselves (Crystal 1997: 285).

FirstPersonExclusive
type: NamedIndividual
type: PersonValue
comment: Distinction of the participants referred to, for example, speaker and others, but not hearer. Contrast with the FirstPersonInclusive (Crystal 1997: 285).

FirstPersonInclusive
type: NamedIndividual
type: PersonValue
comment: Distinction of the particpants referred to, for example, speaker, hearer and others. Contrast with FirstPersonExclusive (Crystal 1997: 285).

gerund
type: NamedIndividual
type: Nominal
comment: A part of speech derived from a verb and used as a noun, usually restricted to non-finite forms of the verb (Crystal 1997: 279).

inanimate
type: NamedIndividual
type: GenderValue
comment: One of the two grammatical genders, or noun classes, of Nishnaabemwin, the other being animate. Membership in the inanimate grammatical class is largely based on meaning, in that non-living things, such as objects of manufacture and natural 'non-living' things are included in it (Valentine 2001: 114).

indefiniteArticle
type: NamedIndividual
type: Article
comment: An article is a part of speech whose members are used to refer to an entity (or class of entities) which is not capable of specific identification (Crystal 1997:193).

indefinitePronoun
type: NamedIndividual
type: Pronoun
comment: An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun that belongs to a class whose members indicate indefinite reference (Crystal 1997: 312; Mish et al. 1990:612).

interjection
type: NamedIndividual
type: PartOfSpeechValue
comment: An interjection is a part of speech, typically brief in form, such as one syllable or word, whose members are used most often as exclamations or parts of an exclamation. An interjection, typically expressing an emotional reaction, often with respect to an accompanying sentence, is not syntactically related to other accompanying expressions, and may include a combination of sounds not otherwise found in the language (Crystal 1997:200).

interrogativeProForm
type: NamedIndividual
type: ProForm
comment: An interrogative proForm is a proForm that is used in questions to stand for the item questioned.

intransitiveVerb
type: NamedIndividual
type: Verb
comment: An intransitive verb is a verb that cannot take a direct object, and describes a property, state, or situation involving only one participant (Crystal 1997:397; Payne 1997:171).

masculine
type: NamedIndividual
type: Animate
comment: A grammatical class of nouns whose members tend to be perceived of as male.

modality
type: NamedIndividual
type: ClosedMorphoSyntacticFeature
comment: Modality is the grammatical encoding of the speaker's attitudes and opinions about the expressed proposition. Modality is concerned with the encoding of the truth status of the expressed proposition as well as the propositional attitudes such as fears, wants and desires. Evidentiality is also closely related and is often part of the formal modality system of a language. A distinction is often made between modal and mood systems in the grammar. However, here they are conflated as 'modality' (Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca 1994: 176; Palmer 2001: 1).

multiplicativeNumeral
type: NamedIndividual
type: Numeral
comment: A multiplicative numeral is a numeral that expresses how many fold or how many times (Pei and Gaynor 1954:149; Hartmann and Stork 1972:147).

negative
type: NamedIndividual
type: PolarityValue
comment: A construction that expresses the contradiction of some or all of a proposition (Crystal 1980: 257).

number
type: NamedIndividual
type: ClosedMorphoSyntacticFeature
comment: Number is the grammatical encoding of cardinality, often found on nouns, pronouns, and verbs. Number expresses count distinctions, such as 'one' or 'more than one'. The count distinctions typically, but not always, correspond to the actual count of the referents of the marked noun or pronoun (Crystal 1980: 245; Hartmann and Stork 1972: 155; Mish et al. 1990: 811).

ordinalNumeral
type: NamedIndividual
type: Numeral
comment: An ordinal numeral is a numeral belonging to a class whose members designate positions in a sequence (Crystal 1997:272; Mish et al. 1990:831).

partOfSpeech
type: NamedIndividual
type: ClosedMorphoSyntacticFeature
comment: partOfSpeech also known as 'grammatical category' or 'lexical class', is the grammatical encoding of a lexical unit's syntactic class. While a particular theory may not utilize the notion part of speech, it is useful as part of a FeatureSystem. The set of part of speech values for a particular language can be described based on how words behave in the syntax (Payne 1997: 33; Maxwell, Simons, and Hayashi 2001).

participle
type: NamedIndividual
type: PartOfSpeechValue
comment: A grammatical term referring to a word derived from a verb and used as an adjective (Crystal 1980: 279).

partitiveNumeral
type: NamedIndividual
type: Numeral
comment: A partitive numeral is a numeral that expresses a fraction (Pei and Gaynor 1954:149; Hartmann and Stork 1972:165).

paucal
type: NamedIndividual
type: NumberValue
comment: Paucal number is number which refers to a few members of a designated class (Crystal 1997: 265).

pejorative
type: NamedIndividual
type: EvaluativeValue
comment: A special form of a noun that indicates the speaker regards the person or object being referred to with distaste, contempt, or displeasure (Valentine 2001: 190-193).

person
type: NamedIndividual
type: ClosedMorphoSyntacticFeature
comment: Person is the grammatical encoding of the number and nature of the participants in a situation. Usually a three-way contrast is found: first, second, and third person. Other formal distinctions in languages include: inclusive/exlusive, honorific/intimate, and male/female (Crystal 1997: 285).

plural
type: NamedIndividual
type: NumberValue
comment: Plural number is number that expresses reference to a quantity greater than that expressed by the largest specific number category in a language, such as 'more than one' in English, and 'more than two' in some other languages (Crystal 1980: 245; Hartmann and Stork 1972: 178; Crystal 1987: 428; Mish et al. 1990: 906).

positive
type: NamedIndividual
type: PolarityValue
comment: In general, positive polarity refers to an assertion that contains no marker of negation (Crystal 1980: 299).

possessivePronoun
type: NamedIndividual
type: PersonalPronoun
comment: A possessive pronoun is a pronoun that expresses ownership and relationships like ownership, such as kinship, and other forms of association (Crystal 1997:312; Mish et al. 1990:918).

postposition
type: NamedIndividual
type: Adposition
comment: A postposition is an adposition that occurs after its complement (Crystal 1997:300; Payne 1997:86).

preferred
type: NamedIndividual
type: EvaluativeValue
comment: A special form of a noun that indicates the speaker regards the person or object being referred to with favor or admiration.

prenoun
type: NamedIndividual
type: PartOfSpeechValue
comment: An element which may be compounded to the front of a noun to signal information such as size, color, etc. (Valentine 2001: 152-154).

preposition
type: NamedIndividual
type: Adposition
comment: A preposition is an adposition that occurs before its complement (Crystal 1997:305; Mish et al. 1990:929; Payne 1997:86).

preverb
type: NamedIndividual
type: Proclitic
type: PartOfSpeechValue
comment: An element which may be compounded to the front of a verb, to signal information such as tense, direction, etc. (Valentine 2001: 154-158).

proAdjective
type: NamedIndividual
type: ProForm
comment: A proAdjective is a proForm that substitutes for an adjective or adjective phrase.

proAdverb
type: NamedIndividual
type: ProForm
comment: A proAdverb is a proForm that substitutes for an adverb or other expression having an adverbial function.

questionParticle
type: NamedIndividual
type: Particle
comment: A particle is a part of speech whose members signal a yes/no question (Payne 1997:296).

reciprocalPronoun
type: NamedIndividual
type: Pronoun
comment: A reciprocal pronoun is a pronoun that expresses a mutual feeling or action among the referents of a plural subject (Crystal 1997:323; Mish et al. 1990:982).

reflexivePronoun
type: NamedIndividual
type: PersonalPronoun
comment: A reflexive pronoun is a pronoun that has coreference with the subject (Mish et al. 1990:990).

relativePronoun
type: NamedIndividual
type: Pronoun
comment: A relative pronoun is a pronoun that marks a relative clause, functions grammatically within the relative clause, and is coreferential to the word modified by the relative clause (Crystal 1997:329).

relativizer
type: NamedIndividual
type: SubordinatingConnective
comment: A relativizer is a subordinating connective that links a relative clause to its head noun. It is distinguishable from a relative pronoun in that it does not have a nominal function within the relative clause (Payne1997:332)

SecondPerson
type: NamedIndividual
type: PersonValue
comment: Normally used for person the speaker is addressing (Crystal 1997: 285).

singular
type: NamedIndividual
type: NumberValue
comment: Singular number is number that refers to one member of a designated class (Crystal 1980: 245; Hartmann and Stork 1972: 210).

substantive
type: NamedIndividual
type: Noun
comment: A substantive is a member of the syntactic class in which the names of physical, concrete, relatively unchanging experiences are most typically found whose members may act as subjects and objects, and most of whose members have inherently determined grammatical gender (in languages which inflect for gender) (Crystal 1997:264; Mish et al. 1990:808; Givón 1984:51-52; Payne 1997:33).

tense
type: NamedIndividual
type: ClosedMorphoSyntacticFeature
comment: Tense is the grammatical encoding of an event's location in time. It is typically marked on the verb and deictically refers to the time of the event or state denoted by the verb in relation to some other temporal reference point (Comrie 1985: 9; Crystal 1987: 384).

ThirdPerson
type: NamedIndividual
type: PersonValue
comment: The manner in which other people, things, animals, etc. are referred to (Crystal 1997: 285).

transitiveVerb
type: NamedIndividual
type: Verb
comment: A transitive verb is a verb that takes a direct object, and describes a relation between two participants (Crystal 1997:397; Mish et al. 1990:1254; Payne 1997:171).

trial
type: NamedIndividual
type: NumberValue
comment: A trial number is a number that refers to three members of the designated class (Pei and Gaynor 1954: 220; Gove, et al. 1966: 2439).

verbalParticle
type: NamedIndividual
type: Particle
comment: A verbal particle is a member of a closed class of particles which co-occur with some verbs to form phrasal verbs. In some languages, verbal particles are identical to certain adpositions.